Developing People, Enriching Communities

The history of ‘modern’ psychology was shaped by Ancient Greek wisdom for many centuries, until the Islamic scholars carried the Greek texts to the great Houses of Wisdom. Here, they developed their own ideas and a new Islamic psychology emerged, which would later influence Europe as it shook off the memory of the Dark Ages and underwent the first Renaissance. Islamic psychology was based upon looking at ways to cure and heal, rather than merely theorise. As indicated above, lot of the contemporary psychological approaches, it could be argued, stemmed from some of the writing of Muslim scholars. Historically, during the Dark Age of Europe, mental ill patients were considered the battlefield of demons, devils and evil spirits. Consequently, they were tortured physically and mentally. At times they were kept starved, burnt alive, whipped, chained and even mutilated in public. Whereas, during this period and before, the Muslim philosophers and physicians had a very healthy and optimistic concept about mental health and mental illness. Ilm al Nafs or the knowledge of the self was a term used by some classical scholars when they referred to in their discussions of mental and spiritual health. Ibn Bhajja, for example, wrote an entire book and titled it ilm al nafs. He basis his psychology on physics. He defines heterogeneous functions of soul (mind), such as sensation, imagination, rational thinking, reasoning and intuitive functions in understanding the process of human growth and development. Scholars such as Ghazzali, al Razi, Ibn al Arabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Taymiyyat, Ibn Rushd, Al Muhasibi, Ibn al Qayyim, et al, provided the theoretical and theological framework. Some of them, such as Ibn Sina, al Kindi and al Farabi, were heavily influenced by Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the point that they espoused heterodoxical views that pushed Scholars such as Ghazzali to consider, for example, Ibn Sina and al Farabi, to be non-Muslims. Some, however, argue that Ibn Sina, for instance, repented and judgement should be left to God. Nevertheless, some of their contributions have been extremely beneficial in the formulation of psychology in the Muslim societies. Two remarkable individuals stand out in the area of Islamic psychology. 1). Al-Ghazzali, he was a polymath who went through various stages of growth and developments. He did not fully adopt Greek philosophy like Ibn Sina and others, he was able to filter eastern and western knowledge and provide a God centric Islamic framework on tasawwuf, philosophy and psychology. His work on the self in his ihya Ulum al din is an indispensable resource for the Islamic psychology researcher. 2) Ibn al Qayyim, another luminary in the Islamic scholarly tradition, his work on Islamic spirituality and psychology is, without a doubt, a great resource for the Islamic psychology researcher. He wrote numerous important books on tasawwuf, spiritualty and Islamic psychology. One of the most important of his works is, Madarij al Salikin (stations of the seeker). This book is based on a book written by Abu Ismail al-Ansari al-Harawi al-Sufi who was a Hanbali scholar from Hirat in modern day Afghanistan. The name of his book is Manazil al-Sa’ireen (the Stations of the Travellers). Abu Ismail named one hundred stations that the traveller during his journey to God passes through. The author starts by giving tafsir of surat al Fatiha. The rest of the book are the stages that the traveller moves through in “You do we worship and You do we seek help from” [Fatiha, v5]. Ibn al-Qayyim, unlike Ghazzali and others, did not explicitly engage Greek philosophy. His focus was to approach psychology purely from the Islamic perspective. His works, in many ways, provides both the theoretical and practical application to Islamic psychology, which at times, is lacking from other scholarly writings. Ilm al Nafs, therefore, may be argued that forms a large part of what may be termed as Islamic psychology along with tasawwuf (or tazkiyat nafs) in the Islamic tradition. Scholars employed various terms and labels to describe the study and effects of the soul (nafs) on thinking and behaviour with each sub discipline focussing on one aspect of human living according to the God centric vision. It is difficult (here) to delve into the various interfaces and discussions among the classical scholars. Suffice it to mention, the nomenclature is not necessarily always important, what is essential is to understand and appreciate the meanings (ma’ani) and haqaiq (their intelligible forms) behind these taxonomies cited in the Islamic discursive texts and the Islamic scholarly tradition.

The history of ‘modern’ psychology was shaped by Ancient Greek wisdom for many centuries, until the Islamic scholars carried the Greek texts to the great Houses of Wisdom. Here, they developed their own ideas and a new Islamic psychology emerged, which would later influence Europe as it shook off the memory of the Dark Ages and underwent the first Renaissance. Islamic psychology was based upon looking at ways to cure and heal, rather than merely theorise. As indicated above, lot of the contemporary psychological approaches, it could be argued, stemmed from some of the writing of Muslim scholars. Historically, during the Dark Age of Europe, mental ill patients were considered the battlefield of demons, devils and evil spirits. Consequently, they were tortured physically and mentally. At times they were kept starved, burnt alive, whipped, chained and even mutilated in public. Whereas, during this period and before, the Muslim philosophers and physicians had a very healthy and optimistic concept about mental health and mental illness. Ilm al Nafs or the knowledge of the self was a term used by some classical scholars when they referred to in their discussions of mental and spiritual health. Ibn Bhajja, for example, wrote an entire book and titled it ilm al nafs. He basis his psychology on physics. He defines heterogeneous functions of soul (mind), such as sensation, imagination, rational thinking, reasoning and intuitive functions in understanding the process of human growth and development. Scholars such as Ghazzali, al Razi, Ibn al Arabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Taymiyyat, Ibn Rushd, Al Muhasibi, Ibn al Qayyim, et al, provided the theoretical and theological framework. Some of them, such as Ibn Sina, al Kindi and al Farabi, were heavily influenced by Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the point that they espoused heterodoxical views that pushed Scholars such as Ghazzali to consider, for example, Ibn Sina and al Farabi, to be non-Muslims. Some, however, argue that Ibn Sina, for instance, repented and judgement should be left to God. Nevertheless, some of their contributions have been extremely beneficial in the formulation of psychology in the Muslim societies. Two remarkable individuals stand out in the area of Islamic psychology. 1). Al-Ghazzali, he was a polymath who went through various stages of growth and developments. He did not fully adopt Greek philosophy like Ibn Sina and others, he was able to filter eastern and western knowledge and provide a God centric Islamic framework on tasawwuf, philosophy and psychology. His work on the self in his ihya Ulum al din is an indispensable resource for the Islamic psychology researcher. 2) Ibn al Qayyim, another luminary in the Islamic scholarly tradition, his work on Islamic spirituality and psychology is, without a doubt, a great resource for the Islamic psychology researcher. He wrote numerous important books on tasawwuf, spiritualty and Islamic psychology. One of the most important of his works is, Madarij al Salikin (stations of the seeker). This book is based on a book written by Abu Ismail al-Ansari al-Harawi al-Sufi who was a Hanbali scholar from Hirat in modern day Afghanistan. The name of his book is Manazil al-Sa’ireen (the Stations of the Travellers). Abu Ismail named one hundred stations that the traveller during his journey to God passes through. The author starts by giving tafsir of surat al Fatiha. The rest of the book are the stages that the traveller moves through in “You do we worship and You do we seek help from” [Fatiha, v5]. Ibn al-Qayyim, unlike Ghazzali and others, did not explicitly engage Greek philosophy. His focus was to approach psychology purely from the Islamic perspective. His works, in many ways, provides both the theoretical and practical application to Islamic psychology, which at times, is lacking from other scholarly writings. Ilm al Nafs, therefore, may be argued that forms a large part of what may be termed as Islamic psychology along with tasawwuf (or tazkiyat nafs) in the Islamic tradition. Scholars employed various terms and labels to describe the study and effects of the soul (nafs) on thinking and behaviour with each sub discipline focussing on one aspect of human living according to the God centric vision. It is difficult (here) to delve into the various interfaces and discussions among the classical scholars. Suffice it to mention, the nomenclature is not necessarily always important, what is essential is to understand and appreciate the meanings (ma’ani) and haqaiq (their intelligible forms) behind these taxonomies cited in the Islamic discursive texts and the Islamic scholarly tradition.

Secular Psychotherapy, as it is practised in the modern era, often presents itself as a purely scientific and objective field, dedicated to the treatment of ‘mental health disorders’. However, the discipline has largely failed to recognise its role in reinforcing the dominant socio-political and cultural status quo. By avoiding historical and philosophical self-reflection, psychotherapy inadvertently contributes to the very ideological frameworks that perpetuate individualism, consumerism, and spiritual emptiness. From an Islamic perspective, this superficiality is concerning. Human beings are not merely biological machines or psychological entities but spiritual beings whose ultimate purpose is servitude to Allah. The inability of psychotherapy to see beyond the material and individualistic dimensions of the self renders it ineffective in providing holistic healing, especially for Muslim clients. True healing necessitates an understanding of the human being’s spiritual reality, moral responsibilities, and divine purpose- an understanding that contemporary psychotherapy often ignores. The Empty Self: A Product of the Secular Age Psychotherapy, as a product of the post-Enlightenment West, emerged in a context where religion was increasingly marginalised. With the diminishing influence of Christianity, secular humanism became the dominant worldview, replacing theological conceptions of human nature with materialistic and individualistic ones. This ideological shift gave rise to what has been described as the “empty self”- a fragmented, self-absorbed individual disconnected from transcendental meaning. Modern secular therapy, rather than challenging this condition, often reinforces it by promoting self-focused ideals of “empowerment,” “authenticity,” and “self-fulfilment.” While these concepts appear harmless or even helpful, they often reflect a deeper cultural ethos of self-worship and consumerism. Islam, by contrast, offers a different vision of the self- one that is not defined by individual desire but by submission to Allah. “But as for he who feared the position of his Lord and prevented the soul from [unlawful] inclination, then indeed, Paradise will be his refuge.” (79:40-41) In this verse, the Qur’an makes clear that the true self is not to be indulged but to be disciplined. The modern therapeutic obsession with self-indulgence, therefore, runs contrary to the Islamic ethos of tazkiyyah (purification of the self). The Political Nature of Psychotherapy Modern secular psychotherapy often claims to be apolitical and neutral. However, this is a myth. The language of therapy and the concepts it promotes are deeply intertwined with the socio-political fabric of neoliberal, capitalist societies. Concepts like “self-actualisation,” “empowerment,” and “personal freedom” reflect the broader consumerist culture in which personal happiness is linked to individual success, self-gratification, and material gain. Therapy, while claiming to be focused on healing, often serves to maintain the status quo by helping individuals adjust to the demands of inherently flawed ideologies. Instead of challenging systemic injustices or socio-political factors that cause distress, therapists frequently encourage clients to become more “resilient” or “productive” within the system. This effectively depoliticises suffering, treating it as a personal malfunction rather than a reflection of deeper societal issues. From an Islamic perspective, this is deeply problematic. Islam does not promote adaptation to unjust, evil and problematic ideologies. The Prophet ﷺ said: “The most excellent jihad is to speak the truth in the face of a tyrant.” (Sunan Abi Dawud) True healing cannot be divorced from justice. When therapists neglect the socio-political dimensions of suffering, they unwittingly become agents of the very system that produces spiritual and psychological distress. The Historical Amnesia of Psychotherapy Another fundamental flaw in modern secular psychotherapy is its refusal to acknowledge its own historical and philosophical underpinnings. By presenting itself as a “hard science,” the field seeks to maintain the privileged position it enjoys in the scientific and capitalist landscape. This ahistorical approach allows therapists to ignore the ways in which their field is shaped by specific intellectual traditions- traditions that are not universal but deeply secular and western in origin. For instance, the Cartesian division of matter and spirit- the philosophical framework that separates the physical from the metaphysical- lies at the heart of modern secular psychology. This materialist dualism reduces the human being to a mere psychophysical organism, denying the existence of the ruh and soul (ruh/nafs) and its divine purpose. Islam, on the other hand, offers a unified view of the self. The human being is a holistic creation composed of body, mind, and soul, all of which must be addressed for true healing to occur. The Qur’an repeatedly reminds us of this integrated nature: “Indeed, We created man from a drop of mingled fluid to test him; and We made him hearing and seeing.” (76:2) This verse highlights the human being’s composite nature- a physical being with the capacity for spiritual and moral awareness. When psychotherapy ignores the ruh and the soul, it amputates a fundamental part of the human experience. Consumerism and the Commodification of Healing One of the most significant yet insidious consequences of modern secular psychotherapy is its contribution to consumerism. The commodification of mental health has created an industry that thrives on individual dissatisfaction and chronic self-improvement. The very language of therapy- framing individuals as “clients”- reflects a transactional, consumerist ethos. Therapy, which should be a tool for healing, is often reduced to a service for self-enhancement, personal gain, or market productivity. The modern self, shaped by capitalist ideals, becomes addicted to self-improvement programmes, mindfulness apps, and wellness products, while genuine spiritual and moral development is neglected. Islam, by contrast, offers a radically different view of human betterment. Growth is not measured by self-satisfaction but by taqwa(God-consciousness) and nearness to Allah: “The most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you.” (49:13) When psychotherapy promotes self-obsession under the guise of healing, it pulls individuals further away from their spiritual purpose, promoting an “empty self” driven by consumerist desires. Towards an Islamic Model of Counselling For Muslims seeking psychological support, it is essential that therapy is grounded in an Islamic worldview- one that sees the human being as a spiritual entity with a divine purpose. Islamic counselling must integrate the rich spiritual, ethical, and philosophical dimensions of Islam into the therapeutic process. Holistic Healing of the Heart and Soul In Islamic psychology, the heart (qalb) is the centre of emotional and spiritual well-being. Its corruption leads to distress, and its purification leads to peace. The Prophet ﷺ said: “Verily, in the body is a morsel of flesh, which, if sound, the whole body is sound; and if corrupt, the whole body is corrupt. Verily, it is the heart.” (Bukhari) Islamic counselling must, therefore, prioritise spiritual purification alongside psychological healing. This means addressing issues such as pride, envy, and heedlessness- ailments that often underlie mental distress. Socio-Political Awareness in Therapy Islamic counselling must be willing to address the socio-political realities that affect mental health. Whether it is systemic injustice, racism, or economic oppression, Muslim therapists cannot reduce suffering to mere individual pathology. Islam promotes justice and social reform as part of healing, making it imperative for therapists to incorporate this consciousness into their practice. Reconnecting Clients with Their Divine Purpose True healing in Islam is not merely the absence of psychological symptoms- it is the reorientation of the soul towards Allah. Islamic counselling must focus on helping clients rediscover their purpose, develop reliance on Allah (tawakkul), and cultivate spiritual contentment (qana’ah), which transcends materialist definitions of happiness. Modern psychotherapy, in its refusal to engage with its own historical and ideological roots, fails to see beyond the surface of the human condition. Its materialistic, individualistic, and consumerist assumptions prevent it from offering genuine healing, especially to Muslim clients. An Islamic approach to counselling, by contrast, recognises the human being as a spiritual creation whose well-being depends on alignment with divine purpose. For Muslim therapists, it is not enough to merely “Islamicise” Western models of therapy- they must develop a holistic and authentically Islamic framework that addresses the soul, body, and mind as a unified whole. Only through this approach can true healing, both in this life and the next, be achieved.