Islamic Counselling as a Spiritual Discipline Rooted in Theology

Counselling, in its essence, is a deeply spiritual endeavour generally and within the Islamic worldview, inseparable from theology (ʿilm al-ʿaqīdah). While secular and western perspectives often compartmentalise counselling as a psychological or social service, Islam views human distress as fundamentally rooted in the soul’s relationship with Allah (SWT). The human heart (qalb), the centre of faith and morality, is the focal point for counselling. Thus, effective counselling must engage with the theological truths that shape one’s understanding of self, suffering, and ultimate purpose.

Theology, in this context, is not merely an academic study but a living reality that informs every aspect of human existence, including mental health and interpersonal relationships. Classical scholars like Imam al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) and Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 1350) emphasised that healing the heart requires knowledge of divine attributes, the soul’s nature, and ethical guidance drawn from sacred texts. Their insights remain relevant today as contemporary Muslim counsellors face psychological challenges that demand both spiritual and empirical understanding.

It is essential to distinguish between ‘mental illnesses’ and physical or medical conditions. While physical diseases are typically characterised by identifiable biological causes and measurable physiological abnormalities, so-called "mental disorders" often arise from psychological, emotional, or spiritual distress in response to adverse life events. These experiences represent normal, albeit painful, human reactions to life’s challenges-not necessarily signs of medical pathology.

Modern psychiatry tends to conflate these fundamentally different domains. It often treats psychological and spiritual suffering as if it were rooted in a biological brain dysfunction, despite lacking conclusive scientific evidence to support such claims. This approach amounts to treating metaphysical or experiential problems using physical interventions, such as psychiatric drugs, which are grounded in the assumption of an underlying neurochemical imbalance. This model persists not because of strong scientific validation, but in part because it supports psychiatry’s position within the broader biomedical field (Whitaker, 2010; Moncrieff, 2008).

Psychiatry claims to adhere to evidence-based scientific standards, yet the diagnostic categories it relies upon frequently fall short of the scientific rigour expected in other areas of medicine. Unlike physical illnesses, which can often be diagnosed through objective tests and biomarkers, most psychiatric diagnoses lack such empirical grounding. As Thomas Insel, former director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), candidly observed regarding the DSM’s diagnostic framework: “The weakness is its lack of validity” (Insel, 2013). Despite this, the profession continues to promote the notion that mental disorders are brain-based diseases, a claim that remains scientifically unsubstantiated (APA, 2013; Insel, 2013).

In Islam, spirituality pertains to the experiential transformation of the heart through remembrance of Allah (dhikr), sincere repentance (tawbah), and cultivation of virtuous character traits (ḥusn al-khulq). Theology refers to the systematic understanding of Allah’s nature, human responsibility, and eschatological realities that govern moral accountability. Both dimensions are essential in counselling because emotional or psychological difficulties often reflect spiritual dissonance or lapses in theological comprehension.

Defining Spirituality and Theology in Counselling

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, spirituality is defined as “the quality or condition of being spiritual; attachment to or regard for things of the spirit as opposed to material or worldly interests.” In essence, spirituality refers to an individual’s experience of a deeper dimension of meaning and power that transcends everyday sensory reality.

Definitions of spirituality vary, but several common themes emerge. Spirituality involves the connection between the self, others, the Divine, and the universe. It reflects one’s personal relationship with God and humanity. It supports individuals in navigating life’s challenges, seeking truth, finding meaning, and developing a unified understanding of existence. It also shapes one’s personal philosophy.

Spirituality fosters a heightened awareness of the connection between the Creator and creation. It represents an inner belief system that relates to the core of one’s being. Through spirituality, individuals often feel a deep sense of unity with nature and humanity. It unites body, mind, and spirit, forming the foundation of personal integrity.

Spirituality cultivates core values such as wisdom, humility, balance, compassion, serenity, maturity, and devotion. It fills existential voids and provides the strength to seek and experience a relationship with the Divine. Shaped by personal experiences, culture, development, and belief systems, spirituality is uniquely defined by each individual. It encompasses elements such as transcendence, hope, love, meaning, quality of life, relationships, and one’s understanding of existence.

As a source of self-confidence and inner strength, spirituality underpins purposeful action. Literature on spirituality commonly includes themes like feeling a sense of belonging in the universe, belief in a higher power, a search for meaning or purpose, experiences of transcendence, and the pursuit of personal truth. It often involves sensing a connection between the visible and invisible, an internal relationship with the Divine, encounters with unconditional love, and the journey toward personal wholeness (Husain, 2005).

However, Reese (1997) offers a more minimalist perspective, defining spirituality as “consistency of action with belief.” He emphasises the behavioural dimension of spirituality, focusing on the alignment between one’s values and one’s actions (Husain, 2005).

The Relationship Between Spiritual Psychology and Other Branches of Psychology

Spiritual psychology shares significant intersections with various psychological disciplines, particularly cognitive and clinical psychology. Its emphasis on understanding the human mind naturally aligns it with cognitive psychology, which focuses on empirically studying mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. While cognitive psychologists explore the mechanics of thought and behaviour through empirical research, spiritual psychologists aim to deepen the understanding of the self-promoting inner awareness, personal transformation, and spiritual growth.

Clinical psychology, on the other hand, is centred on the research, teaching, and application of psychological principles to assess, prevent, and treat mental, emotional, and behavioural ‘disorders’. According to Resnick (1991), it addresses intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, and social maladjustments, offering services to a wide range of populations (Husain, 2005).

In contrast, spiritual psychology focuses more directly on what might be termed “spiritfulness”-embracing sacredness, unity, and personal transformation. It includes practices such as meditation, prayer, and spiritual rituals not only as forms of treatment but also as methods for assessing and addressing spiritual crises or imbalances. While the approaches differ, both disciplines rely heavily on scientific theories, evidence-based practices, and professional training.

Historically, clinical psychology has been grounded in the scientist-practitioner model. But, Kihlstrom (2004) questioned its continued relevance for training both clinicians and researchers. Since the release of Miller's Integrating Spirituality into Treatment (1999), professional psychology has increasingly embraced alternative training models that incorporate spirituality. This shift has led spiritual psychology to drift somewhat from traditional scientific frameworks (Husain, 2005).

For spiritual psychology to be considered alongside mainstream approaches such as cognitive-behavioural or humanistic-existential therapy, it must, they argue, meet similar standards of scientific rigour. That means grounding spiritual practices in verifiable evidence rather than relying on anecdotal or weak data.

Importantly, spiritual psychology, it is argued, is not inherently religious or metaphysical, nor does it claim to stand independently of other sciences. Rather, it seeks to establish itself as a discipline dedicated to understanding spiritual life and well-being. It brings together the mind, heart, and spirit in a unified framework of psychological inquiry. (Husain, 2005)

Although spiritual psychology is relatively new, it is emerging as a cohesive field. Over time, professional training in psychology has moved from psychodynamic models to behaviourism, then to cognitive-behavioural and existential-humanistic approaches- and now increasingly includes spirituality. This progression reflects a growing recognition of the need to integrate:

The body, mind, heart, and spirit; and

Theory with practical application.

Through this integrative lens, spiritual psychology explores the cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes that shape human experience, belief, and behaviour. It shares close ties with both metaphysical inquiry and traditional psychological sciences, aiming to connect mental processes with lived experience and action.

Some 21st-century psychologists suggest that spiritual consciousness, self-awareness, and spiritual intelligence are not fringe concepts, but essential elements in the ongoing quest to understand universal laws of human behaviour. Spiritual psychology, therefore, stands as a bridge-linking science, meaning, and the deeper dimensions of human existence. (Husain, 2005)

The Distinct Nature of Islamic Spirituality in Psychology and Counselling

Islamic spirituality is fundamentally different from many contemporary or secular conceptions of spirituality in that it is deeply rooted in religious practice and metaphysical principles. In Islam, spirituality is not an abstract or subjective pursuit detached from tradition-it is inextricably linked to the practice of the Qur’an and Sunnah. There is no true Islamic spirituality without adherence to these divine sources.

Classical Islamic scholars such as Imām al-Ghazālī, Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn al-Qayyim, and others who wrote extensively on Tazkiyah al-Nafs (purification of the soul), Tasawwuf (spiritual refinement), and inner transformation, always grounded their spiritual teachings in the theological and legal foundations of Islam. Their works consistently emphasised that spiritual growth is not separate from religious observance; rather, it is through acts of worship, sincere repentance, remembrance of Allah (dhikr), and ethical conduct that the soul is refined.

This integrative approach to spirituality in Islam is more accurately understood within the framework of Islamic psychology and counselling. Here, spirituality is not a vague inner experience, but a deeply theological and disciplined process, intertwined with the sciences of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Aqidah (creed), and Iman (faith).

These disciplines collectively shape the development of the human self and provide the necessary tools for addressing life’s psychological and emotional challenges.

In the context of mental health and counselling, it is essential to recognise that practitioners are often dealing with the struggles and sufferings of life-not with diagnosable physical or medical conditions.

Islamic counselling, therefore, draws upon the spiritual and intellectual legacy of Islamic scholarship, viewing the human being as a unified entity of body, mind, and soul.

Islamic sciences do not compartmentalise mental, spiritual, and emotional health. Rather, they see them as interrelated aspects of the human journey toward Allah. Healing and well-being in Islam are ultimately connected to the rectification of the heart, the soundness of belief, and alignment with divine guidance.

Islamic spirituality is not a separate dimension from theology or law-it is their fruit. It offers a holistic model of psychological and spiritual care that integrates sacred knowledge with practical methods for personal transformation. Any attempt to develop Islamic psychology or counselling must therefore remain firmly anchored in this religious and metaphysical foundation, ensuring that both the inward and outward dimensions of the self are nurtured in accordance with divine will.

The Spiritual Nature of Counselling

The Qur’an commands believers to purify their souls: “Indeed, he succeeds who purifies it” (91:9). Human beings are created with an innate disposition (fitrah) inclined towards recognising and worshiping Allah (SWT), as stated: “So direct your face toward the religion, inclining to truth- this is the fitrah of Allah” (30:30). Emotional and psychological afflictions, therefore, signal disruptions in this natural state (Husain, 2016).

Counselling in Islam addresses such disruptions by guiding the individual back to this fitrah through repentance, self-accounting (muhāsabah), and spiritual disciplines. The ethical formation embedded in this process fosters resilience and enables believers to contextualise suffering within a framework of divine wisdom and accountability. Faith in Allah’s mercy and justice sustains hope and perseverance during trials, reflecting a theological worldview that provides existential meaning absent in purely secular models.

Classical Islamic Models of Counselling

The writings of al-Ghazālī and Ibn al-Qayyim provide foundational frameworks for Islamic counselling. Al-Ghazālī’s Ihyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn outlines a multi-stage process beginning with establishing trust and compassion between counsellor and counselee (mu‘āhadah), followed by diagnosing spiritual ailments (tashkhīṣ).

Healing involves takhalli- the removal of spiritual impurities through repentance, prayer, and remembrance- and tahalli- the cultivation of virtues such as patience, gratitude, and sincerity. Finally, the process culminates in muhāsabah, continuous self-monitoring to maintain spiritual health. This comprehensive approach reflects the inseparability of spirituality and counselling in Islamic tradition.

Ibn al-Qayyim expanded on these principles by emphasising the power of invoking divine names and supplications tailored to soften the heart and counteract spiritual ailments. He also highlighted community participation as essential for sustained healing and moral reform. These classical models illustrate how theological concepts serve as the practical foundation for counselling interventions that address the whole person- body, mind, and soul.

Contemporary Empirical Validation

Recent studies in Muslim-majority contexts have empirically validated the spiritual approach to counselling. In Malaysia, Purwakania and Tamam (2018) developed a spiritual counselling module based on al-Ghazālī’s teachings, which demonstrated high reliability and efficacy in improving adolescent mental health. Another study by Fikri (2024) applied Qur’anic verses to reduce anxiety symptoms, showing significant improvements in generalised anxiety ‘disorder’ assessments alongside enhanced spiritual reliance (tawakkul).

In Brunei, the International Center for Spiritual and Islamic Studies (RSIS, 2025) introduced the Ihyāʾ Child-Centered Counselling Model, integrating Qur’anic recitation, prayer, and play therapy to support abused children. The intervention resulted in measurable gains in emotional stability and moral behaviour, highlighting the effectiveness of blending spiritual practice with modern counselling techniques.

These examples affirm that Islamic counselling is not an abstract ideal but a living discipline validated by research and practice, demonstrating the vital role of spirituality and theology in healing.

Comparison with Secular Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

While secular cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) focuses on restructuring thoughts and behaviours to alleviate symptoms, Islamic counselling addresses the spiritual root causes of distress. CBT emphasises symptom management and functional improvement, typically grounded in cognitive science and empirical psychology.

In contrast, Islamic counselling incorporates theological convictions about human purpose, divine decree, and moral responsibility.

The goals differ significantly: Islamic counselling seeks tazkiyah- the purification of the heart and ethical reform (from specific and general transgressions against God)- beyond mere symptom relief. It acknowledges the multidimensional nature of humans, encompassing the intellect, emotions, spirit, and body, whereas CBT tends to isolate cognition and behaviour.

Islamic counselling integrates practices such as dhikr, supplication, repentance, and scriptural reflection, which nurture a spiritual connection to Allah and promote resilience through divine trust. Accountability in Islamic counselling extends beyond the therapeutic relationship to include eschatological awareness, where believers are mindful of their standing before Allah in the Hereafter.

Thus, while both approaches may employ counselling conversations and supportive relationships, their foundational worldviews and ultimate aims diverge substantially.

Practical Applications for Counsellors

In practice, Islamic counsellors incorporate spiritual tools to facilitate healing. The regular remembrance of Allah through prescribed dhikr practices at specific times of the day anchors clients in divine presence, fostering mindfulness and reducing anxiety. Reflection on daily blessings cultivates gratitude, a virtue strongly emphasised in the Qur’an for emotional well-being. During moments of distress, clients are encouraged to repeat phrases like “Hasbiyallāhu wa ni‘mal wakīl” (“Allah is sufficient for me, and He is the best disposer of affairs”), which replaces fear with trust.

Counsellors also promote the habit of muhāsabah through journaling-encouraging clients to monitor their prayers, gratitude expressions, emotional responses, and spiritual struggles daily. This practice increases self-awareness and responsibility, reinforcing the theological belief that the heart must be continually purified.

Scriptural reminders such as “Verily, with hardship comes ease” (94:5-6) or “Indeed, the soul is prone to evil” (12:53) provide theological context to suffering and human weakness, supporting hope and perseverance.

Through such methods, Islamic counselling becomes a dynamic spiritual journey grounded in theology, enabling clients to navigate life’s challenges with faith-informed resilience.

The Necessity of Formal Islamic Training in Counselling: A Spiritual and Theological Perspective

Counselling has always been a vital form of human interaction, offering support and guidance through the complexities of life. Historically, counselling was informal, provided by trusted community members, family elders, and religious leaders. Within the Islamic tradition, counselling is deeply rooted in the spiritual and theological framework of Islam, drawing primarily on the Qur’an and Sunnah.

While counselling in general may not require formal qualifications, effective Islamic counselling-distinct from secular psychological models-demands formal training that integrates Islamic theology and spirituality with counselling principles.

Historical Context and the Informality of Counselling

Historically, counselling was embedded in everyday interactions within families and communities. Islamic societies have long relied on the wisdom of scholars (‘ulama) and spiritual guides who provided advice grounded in Islamic teachings. This form of guidance did not necessitate formal degrees or certifications; rather, it depended on the counsellor’s deep knowledge of the Qur’an, Sunnah, and Islamic jurisprudence, combined with personal piety and experience (Husain, 2016).

Nevertheless, with the professionalisation of counselling in the West, rooted primarily in secular psychology and psychiatry, a distinct divide emerged between spiritual guidance and psychological therapy. While secular counselling emphasises psychological theories and empirical methods, it often neglects spiritual dimensions crucial to Muslim clients. Consequently, Muslim communities have recognised the need for specialised Islamic counselling that preserves spiritual authenticity and theological integrity.

Counselling as a Spiritual and Theological Practice in Islam

As stated and emphasised above, Islamic counselling is inherently spiritual and theological. The human being (‘insan) in Islam is a unified creation of body, mind, and soul (‘ruh), and holistic healing involves addressing all these aspects. The Qur’an emphasises spiritual wellbeing alongside physical and emotional health, indicating that psychological distress often has spiritual roots.

For example, states of anxiety, depression, or interpersonal conflict may stem from a disruption in one’s relationship with Allah (SWT), lack of spiritual purpose, or failure to follow Islamic ethical conduct. Islamic counselling, therefore, focuses not only on alleviating psychological symptoms but also on restoring spiritual balance through adherence to the guidance of the Qur’an and Sunnah (Ibn Qayyim, 2000).

This theological foundation differentiates Islamic counselling from secular approaches. The counsellor’s role is not merely to listen and offer strategies but to facilitate spiritual healing through Quranic reflection, invocation (du’a), remembrance (dhikr), repentance (tawbah), and moral encouragement. These are authentic Islamic methods with proven spiritual efficacy validated by centuries of scholarship and practice (Husain, 2016).

The Necessity of Formal Islamic Training in Counselling

While informal counsel based on Islamic knowledge and goodwill is widespread, it is insufficient to meet the complex challenges facing Muslims today. The multifaceted nature of contemporary problems-ranging from mental health issues to identity crises and family dynamics-requires counsellors who are formally trained both in Islamic sciences and counselling techniques.

Formal Islamic training equips counsellors with an authoritative understanding of key Islamic disciplines: Tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis), Hadith studies, Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), and ethics, alongside psychological theories adapted to an Islamic worldview. This training ensures counsellors avoid erroneous advice that could contradict Islamic teachings and cause spiritual harm. For instance, advising a client to disregard certain religious obligations for the sake of psychological comfort would be unethical and inconsistent with Islam.

The Fundamental Requirement: A Coherent Theological Vision

What, then, is required for counselling? The cornerstone of counselling in Islam is articulating and embodying a coherent vision of reality that:

Recognises the person’s condition and dilemma.

Identifies the root causes of distress.

Offers guidance based on Islamic teachings.

Facilitates a path to healing aligned with Allah’s commands.

This vision is inevitably theological because Islam sees human beings not merely as psychological or social creatures, but as spiritual beings created by Allah with a specific purpose. Humans are tested and accountable to their Creator, and ultimate healing requires submission to divine will.

The Qur'an (4:1) reminds us of our creation from a single soul (nafs), emphasising human unity and accountability. The human heart, mind, and soul are interconnected, and the sources of distress often arise from spiritual disconnect, sin (dhanb), or failure to live according to Allah’s guidance (13:28).

Thus, counselling cannot be value-neutral or purely pragmatic. It must reflect the Islamic worldview -Tawheed - which recognises Allah’s sovereignty over all aspects of life (2:255).

Because every counselling vision involves beliefs about what is true, good, and ultimate, it is theological by nature. In Islam, this theology is clear and uncompromising:

Allah is the Creator and Sustainer (2:255).

Human beings are honoured creations with purpose (17:70).

The primary problem facing humanity is disobedience to Allah, resulting in spiritual, emotional, and social disharmony (7:56).

The ultimate solution is sincere repentance, reliance on Allah (tawakkul), and adherence to the Qur'an and Sunnah (39:53).

Transformation is achieved through divine guidance, prayer, remembrance, and the support of the community (Husain, 2016).

Islamic counselling thus cannot be divorced from its theological roots without losing its essence. Counsellors must ground their understanding in the Qur'an and Sunnah to address not only outward symptoms but the soul's condition.

The Rise and Limitations of Secular Counselling

The 20th century saw the rise of secular counselling, which generally excludes Allah and divine revelation from its framework. This approach tends to treat human problems as purely psychological or sociological phenomena, ignoring the spiritual realities fundamental in Islam.

Secular counselling often fails to account for the soul's condition or human accountability to Allah. As a result, while it may provide temporary relief or behavioural change, it rarely achieves holistic healing or lasting transformation.

Example 1: The Failure of Secular Counselling Due to Lack of Divine Accountability

Consider a secular counsellor advising a couple experiencing marital strife. Without the framework of Islamic accountability and repentance, the counsellor may focus on communication techniques or conflict resolution skills alone, neglecting the spiritual root causes such as selfishness (an-nafs al-ammara), lack of patience (sabr), or neglect of religious obligations.

Such counselling lacks an ultimate standard and often results in short-term fixes without addressing the heart’s healing or fostering true reconciliation.

Example 2: Partial Success of Techniques Like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), popular in secular psychology, challenges distorted thinking patterns and promotes positive cognition. Some of its principles resonate with Islamic teachings about guarding the heart and controlling harmful thoughts.

However, CBT omits the Creator and the soul’s accountability. It reduces human beings to collections of thoughts rather than honoured servants of Allah with eternal purposes. Consequently, it cannot offer the comprehensive transformation that Islam requires, which involves spiritual renewal through faith, prayer, and submission.

Effective counselling in Islam requires a theological foundation grounded in Tawheed and the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. While secular counselling may provide some helpful techniques, it lacks the ultimate authority and spiritual dimension that Islamic counselling offers.

By embracing divine revelation and prophetic wisdom, Muslim counsellors guide individuals not only to temporary relief but toward lasting transformation, peace, and closeness to Allah.

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